CHAPTER II - PART 2: SHARED CITIZENSHIP, LINGUISTIC DUALITY AND THE EVOLVING REALITY OF CULTURAL DIVERSITY
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As Canadians, we have always struggled with our identity and often defined ourselves based on how we are different from our neighbour to the south. One component of Canada’s identity that clearly sets it apart is that it is a country composed of two language groups, which emerged from an accommodation that began early in its history. Indeed, since the very early days of our country’s history, the two language communities have come together and built a relationship based on mutual respect. We learned how to make room for differences and dialogue.
| “Canadian approaches to diversity naturally reflect Canadian realities. The starting point is that Canada is one of the most multicultural countries in the world. Among OECD countries, it is virtually unique in the coexistence of three dimensions of difference: the historic divide between English- and French-speaking communities, which represents the central reality of Canadian political life; the presence across the country of indigenous peoples, many of whom assert traditional claims to selfgovernance; and large immigrant communities...”17 |
Over time, the openness and spirit of accommodation that have grown out of the relationship between the two language communities have also opened the door to Canada’s development as an inclusive and multicultural nation, with the arrival of successive waves of immigrants fleeing oppression or seeking opportunity and a fresh start in a democratic nation.
The values that underlie linguistic duality—acceptance, tolerance and openness to other cultures—have been instrumental in the peaceful evolution of the country and its attractiveness as a host country for immigration. As Michael Adams said recently:18 “[…] the two-way street of reasonable accommodation is not so uncharted after all: it is already well-paved with laws, rules, norms, institutions and extremely powerful integrative economic, cultural and social forces […] Canadians have been working on this street for a very long time.”
The experiences many of us have had learning our second official language and discovering the culture of the other official language group allow us to understand and be more sensitive to the immigrant experience. Although the move to action and concrete measures has come late in the day, this ability to recognize and accommodate difference is having an impact now on how we address the needs, for example, of native peoples, who have been economically, culturally and territorially marginalized.
The Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages has been interested in the relationship between official languages and cultural diversity for a number of years. In her 2005–2006 annual report, the former Commissioner reflected at length on the future of the country and the contribution duality and diversity have made to the development and modernization of Canada. She considered how the obligation to promote linguistic duality and support official language communities should be viewed in an evolving context marked by the growing influence of cultural diversity. In addition, she issued a recommendation to the federal government, asking the Minister for Official Languages to undertake a dialogue with stakeholders in Canadian society to find ways to better integrate the values of duality and diversity into federal policies.
| In 2005-2006, the Commissioner recommended: “That the Minister for Official Languages initiate a dialogue with the various stakeholders in Canadian society to identify the measures to take in order to fully integrate the fundamental values of linguistic duality and cultural diversity into the country’s governance models and derive the full benefits that flow from them.” |
The government has not responded to the recommendation, but this issue is now more important than ever and must be addressed if we are to continue to nurture our linguistic duality as a cornerstone of our identity and unity. Framed more boldly, we need to be able to answer those who, rightly or wrongly, question the relevance of linguistic duality as a central facet of Canadian citizenship, identity and values in the current context of growing diversity. As the Commissioner is often asked, how can the existence of federal policies and expenditures on linguistic duality be justified when Toronto and Vancouver have 46% and 40% foreign-born populations respectively, and where more than 100 languages are spoken in homes across our largest city? Moreover, given that this country’s population growth is fuelled mainly by immigration and that immigrants overwhelmingly integrate into the English-speaking majority community, what measures can be taken to continue to support a strong Francophone presence across the country and ensure that both official language groups benefit equally from the arrival of immigrants?
What follows is a discussion about a vision for a country that is quickly evolving, a culturally diverse nation where the national dialogue takes place in two official languages that are rooted in our history, but should remain central to our future. The Commissioner hopes that the federal government will demonstrate a willingness to examine the relationships between existing policies and programs for linguistic duality and multiculturalism, so as to adapt each of them to the country’s evolving reality.
AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
The reflection on the relationship between Canada’s linguistic duality and cultural diversity is not new. The debate was already taking place in the 1960s, when the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism stated in its 1965 preliminary report that Canada was passing through the greatest crisis in its history, given the independence movement in Quebec and the hostility towards French in the rest of the country. In its recommendations, the Commission proposed a new partnership between English-speaking and French-speaking Canadians. In future, the Government of Canada would function more effectively in French and the predominantly English-speaking provinces would be encouraged to offer more public services in the minority language, where demand was sufficient. Also, more would be done to recognize the contribution and heritage of other cultural communities. What emerged in response to these recommendations was the Official Languages Act in 1969, a multiculturalism policy in 1971, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1982 and the Canadian Multiculturalism Act in 1988.
| “The recognition and accommodation of diversity have been central features of Canadian political history, and contemporary debates over multiculturalism are simply the continuation of an ongoing Canadian conversation. This tradition is grounded in historic commitments to French Canada and to the Aboriginal peoples, who both see themselves—and are increasingly seen by others—as distinct societies or ‘nations’within the Canadian state. These accommodations framed the cultural context in which Canada responded to new forms of diversity resulting from immigration during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.”19 |
TODAY’S REALITIES
Data from the 2006 census show the growing impact of immigration and the allophone population on Canada’s linguistic landscape. The increase in the number of allophones continues to cause a decline in the proportion of both English and French mother-tongue speakers. A total of 20% of the population now has a language other than English or French as their mother tongue. Given Canada’s increasing dependence on immigration for population growth, it is not surprising that the proportion of people who have one of the official languages as their mother tongue is declining. What was often overlooked in the media reports on the census data is that Canada’s diversity is still overwhelmingly expressed through our two official languages, and that immigrants adopt one of the two official languages as their language of use. In 2006, the vast majority of foreign-born Canadians (93.6%) reported that they could converse in English or French or both official languages. This was also the case for recent newcomers20 to this country (90.7%). Furthermore, the use of one or both official languages naturally increases the longer immigrants live in Canada. Indeed, English and French clearly remain the languages that shape the national dialogue in this country,21 and rates of bilingualism among Anglophones and allophones continue to rise, albeit rather slowly.22
| “…today we are a hugely pluralistic society, so instead of celebrating our differences, maybe it’s time to think about what we have in common. And in looking for those commonalities,we have to turn to history, and in that, the story of French and English Canada coming together to create the democratic institutions and values upon which the prosperity and strength of this country rest.” Rudyard Griffiths23 |
LOOKING TO THE FUTURE: THE FULL PARTICIPATION OF ALL CANADIANS IN THE NATIONAL DIALOGUE
During a speech in Québec City in June 2007, former U.S. President Bill Clinton explained that in every community there are three minimal conditions for success:
(1) all members must be able to fully participate in the life of the community to the best of their abilities;
(2) the responsibility for success must be shared by all; and
(3) all members of the community must share a sense of belonging.24
Canada’s complex and evolving identity requires strong leadership from the federal government to ensure that, in the future, Canadian identity continues to be inclusive and built around common values, the notion of full participation and equality of opportunity, and a strong sense of belonging.
| “Linguistic duality and the reality of Canada’s diversity are two things that I think are essential to how we see ourselves as Canadians.” The Right Honourable Adrienne Clarkson25 |
Canada’s two official languages have shaped our past and should continue to play a central role in facilitating dialogue and contributing to cohesion in the future. When envisioning the emerging reality of an increasingly diverse, urban and multicultural nation, there are two key questions related to linguistic duality that must be examined:
(1) How do we ensure that French-speaking communities benefit equitably from immigration so that they can continue to thrive and contribute to the national dialogue?
(2) How do we ensure that linguistic duality continues to be shared by all Canadians as a common bond and one of the fundamental cornerstones on which the country and national unity is based?
IMMIGRATION AND FRENCH-SPEAKING COMMUNITIES
Colin Robertson noted in a recent article26 that our “Frenchness” remains integral to who we are as a country: it is pan-Canadian and not confined to Quebec. The challenge in a country increasingly dependent on immigration is ensuring that the French-speaking population can grow and benefit from the arrival of new immigrants in the same way the English-speaking population does. This is a challenge both for the Quebec government and for Francophone minority communities across the country.
Minority Francophones’ dependence on immigration to ensure demographic growth has its share of challenges. Outside Quebec, a miniscule proportion of immigrants already speak French when they arrive or adopt French as their language of use. As a result, immigration is a subtractive force for Francophones that decreases not only their demographic weight in the country as a whole, but also the vitality of French in the country. Immigration has the opposite effect on Anglophones, because the vast majority of immigrants join the English-speaking population.
This loss of vitality in the Canadian francophonie may accelerate if strong action is not taken to increase the number of immigrants who speak French and who are likely to integrate into official language communities. Fortunately, following the calls for action from the Francophone community and the Office of the Commissioner, Citizenship and Immigration Canada took this issue seriously and in 2002 launched a broad initiative to increase the number of Francophone immigrants and promote the settlement and retention of these immigrants in Francophone minority communities. In 2006, the Citizenship and Immigration Canada- Francophone Minority Communities Steering Committee presented a new five-year plan that defines targets and strategies. By 2008, six years after the initiative was launched, many projects have been created at the national level and in all the provinces, even if it will be a few years before they produce meaningful results. The national projects launched in 2007 include the following:
- In November, a delegation of representatives from Francophone communities, provincial governments and employers participated in a recruitment and promotion tour titled Destination Canada, which travelled to Paris, Lyon, Brussels and Tunis.
- The theme of the annual conference of the Association canadienne pour l’éducation en langue française held in September was cultural diversity in schools. The Fédération nationale des conseils scolaires francophones adopted the same theme for its annual symposium. This symposium explored issues related to welcoming the numerous immigrants who choose the French-language school system.
- The Fédération des communautés francophones et acadienne du Canada toured existing Francophone immigration networks to determine the needs and shortcomings related to welcoming newcomers. The information that was gathered was used to suggest corrective measures to the Citizenship and Immigration Canada Steering Committee.
Several projects have also been undertaken in some provinces and territories. The majority of provinces have been able to create infrastructure for welcoming newcomers or to strengthen the existing ones. The majority of the projects are based on a comprehensive strategy that aims to act in a coordinated manner on all fronts, including host-community promotion, settlement services, children’s education, employer commitment and community awareness of cultural diversity. By working in this manner, the entire community is involved in integration efforts. The projects currently underway include the following:
- The Carrefour d’immigration rurale Évangéline has developed a guide for newcomers and a DVD to promote this region of Prince Edward Island. In October 2007, the Festival Acadiversité, whose theme was cultural diversity, was a great success.
- Thanks to the support provided by the provincial and federal governments, Ontario has three immigration networks: one for the southwest region, one for the eastern region and one for the northern region. These three networks are developing strategic plans that will be tailored to the needs of their respective communities. A one-stop service centre was created in London to offer settlement, employment and referral services under one roof. The Ontario office of Citizenship and Immigration Canada provides funding to the University of Ottawa to develop a three-year strategy for attracting and retaining Francophone immigrants to the province’s official language communities.
- The Government of Alberta, in cooperation with the Association canadienne-française de l’Alberta, conducted extensive research to determine settlement needs. The results of this research will make it possible to implement concrete measures. In 2007, the Centre d’accueil et d’établissement d’Edmonton provided settlement services to over 350 Francophone immigrants. Accèsemploi launched a project to facilitate the adaptation and integration of young immigrants through links between their schools and their families.
- The Assemblée communautaire fransaskoise created a guide titled Vivre en Saskatchewan – guide pour une intégration réussie. They also organized an interdepartmental fair to raise awareness within provincial ministries of immigration issues. In September 2007, Premier Lorne Calvert hosted a large group of Francophone immigrants at the Legislative Building.
- In September 2007, the Government of British Columbia published a report containing a range of recommendations for improving French-language settlement services for implementation in 2008. The province also funded the hiring of three settlement workers for Francophone schools to help welcome newcomers.
- The Association franco-yukonnaise has created infrastructure to welcome both the many Canadians arriving from other provinces and immigrants. This community now has methods and structures that meet its needs.27
Despite this notable progress, recruitment has been modest so far.28 In addition to federal government efforts, the provinces must also consult with Francophone communities on their needs, as stipulated in most federal-provincialterritorial agreements on immigration, and promote the selection of qualified Francophone candidates. Through their various programs, such as the provincial candidate selection programs, all levels of government can help encourage Francophone immigration. However, their promotion and selection mechanisms must better address community needs and strategies. Furthermore, the image of a bilingual Canada and of dynamic francophone communities must be reflected at every step of the immigration process.
Most infrastructure for welcoming newcomers in French is in the preliminary stage of development, while certain communities, such as the small town of Brooks, Alberta, are being flooded with newcomers, and schools are having trouble integrating all the new students due to lack of space and resources. Significant amounts will have to be invested in creating infrastructure that is capable of meeting this demand. Funding from Citizenship and Immigration Canada for immigration settlement must allow communities to continually improve these services.
| At a forum organized by the Office of the Commissioner in Toronto in October 2007 with representatives of ethnocultural communities, the Francophone participants identified the following issues related to the everyday interaction of linguistic duality and cultural diversity:
|
Moreover, the services that are offered must be tailored to the specific needs of newcomers. Some communities welcome more refugees (who have more specific needs than other immigrants) while others (for example, in the Yukon and Alberta) receive large numbers of Francophones, including young entrepreneurs and professionals from elsewhere in Canada, as well as immigrants.
In addition, the type of host community should be taken into consideration. Someone who moves to a small bilingual municipality in Manitoba will no doubt have a very different experience from a person who moves to Toronto, where the Francophone community is sizeable, but scattered. Newcomers to Toronto must be made aware as soon as they arrive that there is a Francophone community they can be part of. It is very likely that newcomers to Toronto have family or friends already living there (which can facilitate their integration), but the same is less likely if they decide to move to Evangeline, Prince Edward Island. These factors must be taken into consideration when planning services.
In terms of integration, the majority of communities have taken measures to prepare residents for cultural diversity, thereby enhancing the integration of newcomers. However, true integration takes a long time, and does not occur in the first six months after arrival. Obtaining employment, finding housing and enrolling the children in school are not enough for newcomers to feel integrated. They must also be able to enjoy all aspects of community life: sports, recreation, community associations, elder support, etc. Communities must recognize from the outset the potential contribution new citizens can make and do everything necessary to ensure they participate in community projects and activities. Francophone minority communities, who have often had to defend their language rights, have set up strong institutions and organizations and have given them the mandate to protect and promote their language and culture. Over the years, these institutions have endeavoured to support the traditions and values that have helped define the community and give it a solid foundation. The true and deep integration of Francophone immigrants into the communities may require the communities and governments to take the time to reflect on these values and on a definition of “Francophone” citizenship. Wanting to live in French, expressing an attachment to French language and culture or using French during social interactions should be enough to determine a person’s belonging to the Canadian Francophonie.
The next few years will be crucial for Francophone immigration. While provinces and municipalities have an important role to play in terms of settlement infrastructure (because many of the projects described receive provincial or municipal funding), the fact remains that these initiatives were made possible through federal government leadership. The Action Plan 2003–2008 gave communities an indication they needed to mobilize and organize. It is now time to give them another indication to enable them to stay on the right path. The time has come to take targeted, ongoing and significant action so that the French presence continues to be felt in the Canada of tomorrow.
MULTIPLE IDENTITIES AND A SHARED NATIONAL DIALOGUE IN OUR TWO OFFICIAL LANGUAGES
In addition to the demographic challenges of supporting a strong French presence across the country, the second issue that Canadians face as we look to the future is to ensure that, despite our origin, we can all share and participate in linguistic duality and recognize it as one of the fundamental cornerstones and common values on which our country is based. In a recent report on cultural diversity in Canada, the federal government’s Policy Research Initiative framed the question more broadly, asking how to foster diversity without divisiness or shared or inclusive citizenship in a multicultural society.29 How can Canada’s official languages contribute to the notion of shared citizenship in the future?
Canadians today have multiple affiliations: unilingual, bilingual or multilingual, we often come from other countries, to which we remain linked through our families, friends and traditions. At the same time, we embrace a collective Canadian identity and common values. Despite our differences and our multiple identities, Canada’s official languages help to bring us together and allow us to carry on a national dialogue. Indeed, the very basis of Canada’s national unity and raison d’être continues to be founded on an understanding between English Canada and French Canada. The richness of this compact is reflected in our laws, political institutions and constitutional framework.
| Discussion Forum on the Perspectives of Canadians of Diverse Backgrounds on Linguistic Duality In October 2007, the Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages held a forum in Toronto during which participants, who were representatives of ethnocultural communities, discussed their relationship with Canada’s official languages. The participants expressed a desire to contribute to Canadian society in a variety of ways and to be part of the national dialogue. They also recognized that linguistic duality is part of what binds Canadians together and that it favours multiculturalism. While not all participants were able to speak both official languages, they all wanted to have more opportunities to learn the other official language. According to the participants, in addition to contributing to the economic integration of immigrants, speaking both official languages leads to a better understanding of the country, its history and its culture, and it supports national unity. Undoubtedly, there is a will and eagerness for dialogue and an understanding of linguistic duality as a fundamental canadian value. Many participants insisted on the importance of finding more ways to put the various communities in contact, both at the local and the national level. |
Canada’s bilingualism and multiculturalism policies are a vision and a framework for dialogue within an inclusive society. Both are based on human rights, equality of opportunity, full participation and the value of respect.
| Citizenship judge Shinder S. Purewal was born in India and came to Canada in 1979. Today he presides over bilingual citizenship ceremonies in Surrey, British Columbia, for new Canadians. Judge Purewal includes the French version of the oath and a few words in French in his ceremonies, he says, “to underline the fact that this country’s basic framework is based on the foundations of two languages—English and French.” For him, “linguistic duality is an important institutional framework for all Canadians to build and sustain a common bond with each other—from coast to coast to coast. In fact, the English and French languages are the vehicles of advancement for any immigrants to this country.” Robert Rothon30 |
The notion of respect goes beyond tolerance; it implies the desire to enter into a mutually beneficial relationship, to take advantage of differences and to learn from the other in order to improve. For this to happen, of course, the possibility of having a dialogue must exist. On the national scene, this dialogue takes place in English and French. This is for historic reasons, but also because enough of the national leaders from all walks of life understand these two languages. The availability of national media in both languages, in every region of the country, allows citizens to have access to news and culture from both linguistic groups. Having two Canadian languages does nothing to diminish the importance of the many other languages spoken in Canada. Some native languages, Inuktitut in particular, are the languages of public administration in northern Canada and their use must be reinforced across the country. Other languages, such as Cantonese, Italian, Hindi and Punjabi, are spoken in many homes and neighbourhoods, and some public services are offered in these languages. Nevertheless, English and French remain the essential languages of communication and the basis for national dialogue and understanding in the country.
ACTIONS FOR MOVING FORWARD
Canada’s policies on linguistic duality and multiculturalism clearly enrich our identity and contribute to social cohesion. They allow for a better understanding of Canada and its history and they support national unity. However, in practice, considerable hurdles still must be overcome, not least of which is the disconnect between the aspirations for linguistic duality as expressed by our laws and political discourse, and the reality, which shows linguistic duality is absent from day-to-day life in many parts of the country.
Linguistic duality is often portrayed as a policy that is only for official language communities, a policy that does not speak to all Canadians. Thus there is a need to better communicate the values and history behind linguistic duality so that all Canadians understand and feel included in this vision. Greater efforts must be made to promote linguistic duality to Canadians, particularly to new and potential immigrants. The relevance of English and French for all Canadians must be explained, as must be the importance of these two languages as a key feature of Canada’s history and as an integral part of citizenship. Such efforts would go a long way to ensuring that Canadians of diverse origins living in cities such as Toronto and Vancouver understand why linguistic duality is important. These efforts would also reinforce a shared sense of national belonging that transcends a local or regional reality.
Many young Canadians are more bilingual, more open to cultural diversity and are more in contact with other cultures than previous generations. They define their Canadian identity in the global context,31 and this identity increasingly includes an ability to speak both official languages and a desire to understand both language communities. Approaches to both linguistic duality and multiculturalism must reflect this evolving vision so they resonate with and remain relevant to this generation.
| “Some Canadians speak only English and others only French, but as an immigrant, I think I've made a good choice in deciding to learn both of Canada's official languages. It is my way of contributing to Canada.” Lorena Ortega, participant at the forum organized by the Office of the Commissioner on linguistic duality and cultural diversity in Toronto in October 2007. |
For immigrants, and indeed for all Canadians, languages are vehicles for advancement. More opportunities should be provided for all Canadians, whatever their background or country of origin, so they can learn their second official language and take part in a dialogue with the other language community. Governments and the education system have a role to play in reinforcing second-language programs in school curricula, improving proficiency levels and promoting exchanges. Post-secondary institutions must also recognize their role in preparing graduates for a Canadian and international job market in which bilingualism and multilingualism are important skills in an interconnected world. Many other countries, including Great Britain, have already come to realize the importance of investing in language skills as a way to improve productivity and competitiveness.32
THE GOVERNMENT’S ROLE
All Canadians should be able to participate in and fully contribute to society. To do so, we must have the necessary tools at our disposal, and government policies must be adapted to the changing reality of society. The interplay between linguistic duality and cultural diversity creates challenges and opportunities for the future that must be addressed today. This includes the need for a broader dialogue about how linguistic duality and cultural diversity contribute to an inclusive vision of Canadian identity and citizenship, one that can be embraced and shared by all. It also requires an openness to adapting policies on linguistic duality and multiculturalism in order to meet these challenges.
As we move forward, the federal government has an obligation to lead. It must provide leadership to ensure that linguistic duality and cultural diversity remain the foundations for shared citizenship and an inclusive society. It is urgent to communicate this vision if we wish to ensure two thriving language communities in the years to come and a national dialogue that respects the contributions of all, in both official languages.
If we are unable to respond to this issue, as the outgoing executive director of the Dominion Institute, Rudyard Griffiths, recently stated, “we stand to lose something that will affect all of us: the ability to imagine what it means to belong to a nation that is greater than the sum of its parts.”33
In 2005, the former Commissioner recommended that the Minister for Official Languages initiate a dialogue with Canadians to fully integrate linguistic duality and cultural diversity into contemporary Canada. This recommendation was based on a vision of shared citizenship that allows for full participation by all, the existence of Canada’s two shared languages and shared values. For the current Commissioner, this recommendation is more relevant than ever.
Notes
17 Keith Banting, Thomas J. Courchene and F. Leslie Seidle, eds., Belonging? Diversity, Recognition and Shared Citizenship in Canada (Montréal: Institute for Research on Public Policy, 2007), p. 648.
18 Michael Adams, “Symposium: Multiculturalism,” The Globe and Mail, December 8, 2007, p. D31.
19 Keith Banting, Thomas J. Courchene and F. Leslie Seidle, eds., Belonging? Diversity, Recognition and Shared Citizenship in Canada (Montréal: Institute for Research on Public Policy, 2007), p. 649.
20 Population that arrived in Canada in the five years preceding the census.
21 A total of 98% of the population speaks at least one of Canada’s official languages.
22 Between 2001 and 2006, the level of English–French bilingualism among anglophones grew from 9% to 9.4% and among allophones, from 11.8% to 12.1%.
23 Quoted in Sarah Hampson, “The Interview: Rudyard Griffiths: Closing a chapter in history,” The Globe and Mail, February 18, 2008, p. L3.
24 Quoted in Patrice Ryan and Frédéric Bérard, “Les trois solitudes,” in André Pratte, ed., Reconquérir le Canada : un nouveau projet pour la nation québécoise (Montréal: Éditions Voix parallèles, 2007), p. 141.
25 Speech given in October 2007 at the Discussion Forum on the Perspectives of Canadian of Diverse Backgrounds on Linguistic Duality organized by the Office of the Commissioner of the Official Languages.
26 Colin Robertson, “The True White North: Reflections on Being Canadian,” Policy Options / Options politiques 29, 2 (February 2008), p. 80.
27 Chapter I also mentions the example of Manitoba’s Francophone community, which took measures to increase the number of Francophone immigrants to the province.
28 In 1997, the proportion of immigrants who spoke only French was 3.8%, and in 2006 it was 5%. The proportion of immigrants who speak both English and French increased from 2.8% in 1997 to 9% in 2006. These data include immigrants who have settled in Quebec and can be found on the Citizenship and Immigration Canada’s Web site at www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/statistics/
.
29 Jean Lock Kunz and Stuart Sykes, From Mosaic to Harmony: Multicultural Canada in the 21st Century (2007), p. 3. Results of regional roundtables conducted by the Policy Research Initiative.
30 Robert Rothon, “Becoming Canadian,” Beyond Words (Winter 2008). Newsletter published by the Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages at www.officiallanguages.gc.ca/newsletter.
31 Jean Lock Kunz and Stuart Sykes, From Mosaic to Harmony: Multicultural Canada in the 21st Century, 2007, p 13. Results of regional roundtables conducted by the Policy Research Initiative.
32 Nuffield Languages Inquiry, 2000. See http://nuffieldfoundation.org
.
33 Rudyard Griffiths, “Blame Ottawa: The country’s two solitudes are more solitary by the day,” The Globe and Mail, February 18, 2008, p. A15.
